Attitudes and perceptions about breastfeeding among female and male informal workers in India and South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, over 740 million women make their living in the informal economy and therefore lack formal employment benefits, such as maternity leave, that can improve infant feeding practices. Returning to work is one of the biggest challenges women face to maintaining breastfeeding. This study aimed to explore attitudes and perceptions towards breastfeeding in the informal work environment among male and female informal workers. METHODS: The study used a qualitative research design. Purposive and snowball sampling was employed. Focus group discussions (FGDs) were conducted among men and women working in different types of informal jobs, in India and South Africa. Data was analysed using a thematic approach and the framework method. RESULTS: Between March and July 2017, 14 FGDs were conducted in South Africa and nine in India. Most women were knowledgeable about the benefits of breastfeeding and reported initiating breastfeeding. However, pressures of family responsibilities and household financial obligations frequently forced mothers to return to work soon after childbirth. Upon return to work many mothers changed their infant feeding practices, adding breastmilk substitutes like formula milk, buffalo milk, and non-nutritive fluids like Rooibos tea. Some mothers expressed breastmilk to feed the infant while working but many mothers raised concerns about expressed breastmilk becoming 'spoilt'. Breastfeeding in the workplace was challenging as the work environment was described as unsafe and unhygienic for breastfeeding. Mothers also described being unable to complete work tasks while caring for an infant. In contrast, the flexibility of informal work allowed some mothers to successfully balance competing priorities of childcare and work. Sociocultural challenges influenced breastfeeding practices. For example, men in both countries expressed mixed views about breastfeeding. Breastfeeding was perceived as beneficial for both mother and child, however it was culturally unacceptable for women to breastfeed in public. This affected working mothers' ability to breastfeed outside the home and contributed to a lack of respect for women who chose to breastfeed in the workplace. CONCLUSION: Mothers working in the informal sector face multiple challenges to maintaining breastfeeding. Interventions are required to support feeding and childcare if global nutrition and development goals are to be met.

Prospective research on infants with mild encephalopathy: the PRIME study.

OBJECTIVE: To determine short-term outcomes of infants with evidence of hypoxia-ischemia at birth and classified as mild neonatal encephalopathy (NE) at <6 h of age. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective multicenter study. Mild NE was defined as ⩾1 abnormal category in modified Sarnat score. Primary outcome was any abnormality on early amplitude integrated electroencephalogram (aEEG) or seizures, abnormal brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or neurological exam at discharge. RESULTS: A total of 54/63 (86%) of enrolled infants had data on components of the primary outcome, which was abnormal in 28/54 (52%): discontinuous aEEG (n=4), MRI (n=9) and discharge exam (n=22). Abnormal tone and/or incomplete Moro were the most common findings. MRI abnormalities were confined to cerebral cortex but two infants had basal ganglia and/or thalamus involvement. The 18 to 24 months follow-up is ongoing. CONCLUSIONS: A larger than expected proportion of mild NE infants with abnormal outcomes was observed. Future research should evaluate safety and efficacy of neuroprotection for mild NE.

Multi-site Study of Diffusion Metric Variability: Characterizing the Effects of Site, Vendor, Field Strength, and Echo Time using the Histogram Distance.

MRI-based multi-site trials now routinely include some form of diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) in their protocol. These studies can include data originating from scanners built by different vendors, each with their own set of unique protocol restrictions, including restrictions on the number of available gradient directions, whether an externally-generated list of gradient directions can be used, and restrictions on the echo time (TE). One challenge of multi-site studies is to create a common imaging protocol that will result in a reliable and accurate set of diffusion metrics. The present study describes the effect of site, scanner vendor, field strength, and TE on two common metrics: the first moment of the diffusion tensor field (mean diffusivity, MD), and the fractional anisotropy (FA). We have shown in earlier work that ROI metrics and the mean of MD and FA histograms are not sufficiently sensitive for use in site characterization. Here we use the distance between whole brain histograms of FA and MD to investigate within- and between-site effects. We concluded that the variability of DTI metrics due to site, vendor, field strength, and echo time could influence the results in multi-center trials and that histogram distance is sensitive metrics for each of these variables.

Multi-site study of diffusion metric variability: effects of site, vendor, field strength, and echo time on regions-of-interest and histogram-bin analyses.

It is now common for magnetic-resonance-imaging (MRI) based multi-site trials to include diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) as part of the protocol. It is also common for these sites to possess MR scanners of different manufacturers, different software and hardware, and different software licenses. These differences mean that scanners may not be able to acquire data with the same number of gradient amplitude values and number of available gradient directions. Variability can also occur in achievable b-values and minimum echo times. The challenge of a multi-site study then, is to create a common protocol by understanding and then minimizing the effects of scanner variability and identifying reliable and accurate diffusion metrics. This study describes the effect of site, scanner vendor, field strength, and TE on two diffusion metrics: the first moment of the diffusion tensor field (mean diffusivity, MD), and the fractional anisotropy (FA) using two common analyses (region-of-interest and mean-bin value of whole brain histograms). The goal of the study was to identify sources of variability in diffusion-sensitized imaging and their influence on commonly reported metrics. The results demonstrate that the site, vendor, field strength, and echo time all contribute to variability in FA and MD, though to different extent. We conclude that characterization of the variability of DTI metrics due to site, vendor, field strength, and echo time is a worthwhile step in the construction of multi-center trials.

Spectrum of Clinical and Associated MR Imaging Findings in Children with Olfactory Anomalies.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The olfactory apparatus, consisting of the bulb and tract, is readily identifiable on MR imaging. Anomalous development of the olfactory apparatus may be the harbinger of anomalies of the secondary olfactory cortex and associated structures. We report a large single-site series of associated MR imaging findings in patients with olfactory anomalies. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective search of radiologic reports (2010 through 2014) was performed by using the keyword "olfactory"; MR imaging studies were reviewed for olfactory anomalies and intracranial and skull base malformations. Medical records were reviewed for clinical symptoms, neuroendocrine dysfunction, syndromic associations, and genetics. RESULTS: We identified 41 patients with olfactory anomalies (range, 0.03-18 years of age; M/F ratio, 19:22); olfactory anomalies were bilateral in 31 of 41 patients (76%) and absent olfactory bulbs and olfactory tracts were found in 56 of 82 (68%). Developmental delay was found in 24 (59%), and seizures, in 14 (34%). Pituitary dysfunction was present in 14 (34%), 8 had panhypopituitarism, and 2 had isolated hypogonadotropic hypogonadism. CNS anomalies, seen in 95% of patients, included hippocampal dysplasia in 26, cortical malformations in 15, malformed corpus callosum in 10, and optic pathway hypoplasia in 12. Infratentorial anomalies were seen in 15 (37%) patients and included an abnormal brain stem in 9 and an abnormal cerebellum in 3. Four patients had an abnormal membranous labyrinth. Genetic testing was performed in 23 (56%) and findings were abnormal in 11 (48%). CONCLUSIONS: Olfactory anomalies should prompt careful screening of the brain, skull base, and the pituitary gland for additional anomalies. Genetic testing should be considered.

Neurodevelopmental outcomes after hypothermia therapy in the era of Bayley-III.

OBJECTIVE: Bayley-III scales are currently used to evaluate outcomes of term infants following hypothermia therapy, while all before reported outcomes in this population have used Bayley-II. Our objectives were to determine the incidence of abnormal neurodevelopmental outcomes using Bayley III and the predictive value of Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in infants who received systemic hypothermia. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a prospective cohort study of inborn infants who underwent hypothermia for moderate/severe neonatal encephalopathy from October 2005-November 2011. RESULT: Eighty newborns underwent hypothermia (incidence of 1/1000). Of the survivors, 89% had Bayley-III performed around 24 months of age. An abnormal outcome using Bayley-III <85 occurred in 50%, while Bayley III <70 occurred in 13%. MRI predicted Bayley III<85 with sensitivity of 73%, specificity of 84%, positive-predictive value of 84% and negative-predictive value of 74%. CONCLUSION: A Bayley-III 85 cutoff identifies a disability rate of 50%, and MRI was predictive of abnormal outcomes. Findings can be useful for counseling of families and planning of future studies using Bayley III.

Diffusion imaging of the congenitally thickened corpus callosum.

This report presents 4 subjects with congenital segmental callosal thickening, an uncommon malformation studied with MR imaging and DTI. Medical records were reviewed for genetic testing and neurodevelopmental status. Three subjects had profound developmental delay; 3 had seizures. MR imaging showed segmental thickening of the rostral and/or midcallosal body. Associated anomalies included polymicrogyria in 1 patient and optic hypoplasia in 1. DTI showed that the segmental thickening was due to anomalous longitudinal supracallosal fibers visually separable from the paired cingulum in 3 patients; in 1 patient, the cingulum was poorly formed. Genetic testing was negative for Fragile X syndrome. Microarray DNA analysis showed 3 copy losses (2q27.3, 3p21.31, 7q21.11) and 1 copy gain (8p11.23) in 1 patient, while testing in the other subject was negative for losses or gains. Potential explanations for the anomalous fibers include heterotopic cingulum, an enlarged indusium griseum, and aberrant callosal fibers.

Improving public health information: a data quality intervention in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effect of an intervention to improve the quality of data used to monitor the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of the human immunodeficiency virus in South Africa. METHODS: The study involved 58 antenatal clinics and 20 delivery wards (37 urban, 21 rural and 20 semi-urban) in KwaZulu-Natal province that provided PMTCT services and reported data to the District Health Information System. The data improvement intervention, which was implemented between May 2008 and March 2009, involved training on data collection and feedback for health information personnel and programme managers, monthly data reviews and data audits at health-care facilities. Data on six data elements used to monitor PMTCT services and recorded in the information system were compared with source data from health facility registers before, during and after the intervention. Data completeness (i.e. their presence in the system) and accuracy (i.e. being within 10% of their true value) were evaluated. FINDINGS: The level of data completeness increased from 26% before to 64% after the intervention. Similarly, the proportion of data in the information system considered accurate increased from 37% to 65% (P < 0.0001). Moreover, the correlation between data in the information system and those from facility registers rose from 0.54 to 0.92. CONCLUSION: A simple, practical data improvement intervention significantly increased the completeness and accuracy of the data used to monitor PMTCT services in South Africa.

Hyperlipidemia resulting in abnormal density and signal intensity of blood in a neonate with lipoprotein lipase deficiency.

We present the imaging findings in an 8-week-old infant with LPL deficiency. Due to markedly increased lipoproteins in the serum, abnormal hypodensity and abnormal T1-weighted hyperintensity were identified in the dural venous sinuses and medullary veins.

Messages about dual contraception in areas of high HIV prevalence are not heeded.

BACKGROUND: Dual protection is recommended for prevention of unwanted pregnancies and protection against sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. It is critical for HIV-negative women to prevent seroconversion and HIV transmission to their infants during pregnancy and breastfeeding. METHODS: Women were followed up after delivery, monthly for the first 9 months and then 3-monthly to 24 months, in a cohort study investigating postnatal HIV transmission. Study nurses discussed family planning, including condom use, at each visit. Contraceptive methods used since the last visit were recorded. All women knew their HIV status, and most women breastfed for a minimum of 6 months. RESULTS: Among 1,137 HIV-positive and 1 220 HIV-negative women the most common contraceptive method was the hormonal injectable; few women used condoms alone or as dual contraception (0-3 months 6.8%; 7-12 months 16.3%; 19-24 months 14.4%). Compared with uninfected women, HIV-positive women were more likely to use condoms in years 1 and 2 after delivery (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.72, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.38-2.14, p<0.001; AOR 1.61, 95% CI 1.15-2.25, p=0.006 respectively). Compared with women with a flush toilet, those with a pit latrine were less likely to use condoms in years 1 and 2 (AOR 0.22, 95% CI 01.7-0.28, p<0.001; AOR 0.27, 95% CI 0.19-0.39, p<0.001). Older women were more likely to use condoms in the first postpartum year (AOR 1.78, 95% CI 1.03-3.09, p=0.040). CONCLUSIONS: More creative ways of promoting condoms and dual contraception need to be found if new HIV infections, in women and children, are to be prevented.

Infant feeding in the time of HIV: rapid assessment of infant feeding policy and programmes in four African countries scaling up prevention of mother to child transmission programmes.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the infant feeding components of prevention of mother to child HIV transmission (PMTCT) programmes. METHODS: Assessments were performed across Botswana, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda. 29 districts offering PMTCT were selected by stratified random sampling with rural and urban strata. All health facilities in the selected PMTCT district were assessed. The facility level manager and the senior nurse in charge of maternal care were interviewed. 334 randomly selected health workers involved in the PMTCT programme completed self-administered questionnaires. 640 PMTCT counselling observations were carried out and 34 focus groups were conducted amongst men and women. RESULTS: Most health workers (234/334, 70%) were unable to correctly estimate the transmission risks of breastfeeding irrespective of exposure to PMTCT training. Infant feeding options were mentioned in 307 of 640 (48%) observations of PMTCT counselling sessions, and in only 35 (5.5%) were infant feeding issues discussed in any depth; of these 19 (54.3%) were rated as poor. Several health workers also reported receiving free samples of infant formula in contravention of the International Code on Breastmilk Substitutes. National HIV managers stated they were unsure about infant feeding policy in the context of HIV. Finally, there was an almost universal belief that an HIV positive mother who breastfeeds her child will always infect the child and intentional avoidance of breastfeeding by the mother indicates that she is HIV positive. CONCLUSION: These findings underline the need to implement and support systematic infant feeding policies and programme responses in the context of HIV programmes.

Subependymoma of the cerebellopontine angle and prepontine cistern in a 15-year-old adolescent boy.

SUMMARY: A case of cerebellopontine angle and prepontine cistern subependymoma in a 15-year-old adolescent boy is presented with a review of the literature. Apparent diffusion coefficient values for subependymoma are reported. Differential considerations for the unusual location of this rare tumor are discussed.

Bacterial contamination and over-dilution of commercial infant formula prepared by HIV-infected mothers in a Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) Programme, South Africa.

To examine the safety of formula feeds used by mothers participating in a Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission (PMTCT) programme, contents of 94 feeding bottles collected at a PMTCT-clinic were analysed. An additional 17 samples were taken from already prepared feeds during home visits, as well as 21 samples from bottles prepared under observation. Living conditions and educational levels were overall good and mothers had been counselled on safe formula preparation. Samples were analysed for faecal bacteria, using Escherichia coli and Enterococcus sp. as indicators. Protein concentration was used as an indicator of concentration of the formula. Out of 94, 63 (67%) of samples obtained at the clinic and 13/16 (81%) of available home samples were contaminated with faecal bacteria, compared to 8/21 (38%) of those prepared under observation. Out of 94, 58 (62%) of the clinic samples containing E. coli and 23/94 (24%) of those containing Enterococcus sp. were contaminated with more than the US government recommended limit of 10 CFU/ml. Out of 94, 26 (28%) of samples obtained at the clinic, 8/17 (47%) of home samples and 3/21 (14%) of those prepared under observation were over-diluted, compared to standards. Many mothers did not follow recommended practices in preparing and feeding the bottles.

Breast health problems are rare in both HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women who receive counseling and support for breast-feeding in South Africa.

BACKGROUND: Breast problems, including mastitis, can interfere with the duration and exclusivity of breast-feeding. However, there are no large prospective studies documenting the prevalence, duration, and timing of such problems in breast-feeding women, particularly those who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). METHODS: Women enrolled prenatally underwent a breast-feeding counseling intervention until 6 months after delivery. Breast health problems were documented per breast for 180 days after delivery, with 14-day recall histories. RESULTS: Breast health problems were rare, and there were no significant differences between HIV-infected and HIV-uninfected women for any of the following conditions: engorgement, 39 HIV-infected women (3.5%) versus 33 HIV-uninfected women (2.7%; P=.30); breast thrush, 17 (1.5%) versus 12 (1.0%; P=.25); bleeding nipple, 6 (0.5%) versus 4 (0.3%; P=.45); and mastitis/abscess, 11 (1.0%) versus 6 (0.5%; P=.17). Most problems occurred during the first month after birth, with few additional mothers experiencing problems after this point: at 1 and 6 months, 13% and 17% of all mothers, respectively, had experienced a minor or major breast health problem, including sore nipples. Women who had not exclusively breast-fed their infants were more likely to experience any of the breast health problems than were women who had exclusively breast-fed their infants (time-dependent variable; adjusted odds ratio, 1.46; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-1.87; P=.003). HIV-infected women who experienced any serious breast health problem (i.e., bleeding nipple, pus oozing from a nipple or breast, or mastitis/abscess) were 3.55 times (95% confidence interval, 0.86-14.78 times; P=.08) more likely to transmit HIV postnatally to their infant. CONCLUSIONS: With encouragement to exclusively breast-feed, women experienced few breast health problems. When those problems did occur, HIV-infected women with bleeding nipple, pus oozing from a nipple or breast, or mastitis/abscess were more likely to transmit HIV to their infants.

Infant feeding counselling for HIV-infected and uninfected women: appropriateness of choice and practice.

OBJECTIVE: To examine infant feeding intentions of HIV-infected and uninfected women and the appropriateness of their choices according to their home resources; and to determine their adherence to their intentions in the first postnatal week. METHODS: Feeding intentions of pregnant women were compared against four resources that facilitate replacement feeding: clean water, adequate fuel, access to a refrigerator and regular maternal income. First-week feeding practices were documented. FINDINGS: The antenatal feeding intentions of 1253 HIV-infected women were: exclusive breastfeeding 73%; replacement feeding 9%; undecided 18%. Three percent had access to all four resources, of whom 23% chose replacement feeding. Of those choosing replacement feeding, 8% had access to all four resources. A clean water supply and regular maternal income were independently associated with intention to replacement feed (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 1.94, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2-3.2; AOR 2.1, 95% CI: 1.2-3.5, respectively). Significantly more HIV-infected women intending to exclusively breastfeed, rather than replacement feed, adhered to their intention in week one (exclusive breastfeeding 78%; replacement feeding 42%; P<0.001). Of 1238 HIV-uninfected women, 82% intended to exclusively breastfeed; 2% to replacement feed; and 16% were undecided. Seventy-five percent who intended to exclusively breastfeed adhered to this intention postnatally, and only 11 infants (<1%) received no breast milk. The number of antenatal home visits significantly influenced adherence to feeding intention. CONCLUSION: Most HIV-infected women did not have the resources for safe replacement feeding, instead choosing appropriately to exclusively breastfeed. Adherence to feeding intention among HIV-infected women was higher in those who chose to exclusively breastfeed than to replacement feed. With appropriate counselling and support, spillover of suboptimal feeding practices to HIV-negative women is minimal.

The effect of nutritional support on weight gain of HIV-infected children with prolonged diarrhoea.

AIM: To examine the effect on growth and immunity of enhanced calorie and protein provision to HIV-infected children presenting with prolonged diarrhoea. METHODS: A total of 169 HIV-infected children aged 6-36 months with diarrhoea for 7 days or more were randomly assigned to either standard nutrition support for children with prolonged diarrhoea or an enhanced diet started during hospitalisation and continued after discharge. The change in weight between enrolment and 8, 14 and 26 weeks and changes in plasma HIV-RNA and CD4 cell count at 8 and 26 weeks were estimated. RESULTS: Children receiving enhanced nutrition achieved significantly more weight gain (p < 0.001) between enrolment and 8 weeks than children on the standard diet (median increase in weight-for-age standard deviation score +1.02 vs. +0.01). After 8 weeks median weight velocity was normal and similar in both groups. The change in median CD4 count was similar in both groups. The 26-week mortality rate was high in both groups (standard support: 22%, enhanced support: 29%). CONCLUSIONS: Nutrition support of children with advanced HIV infection and prolonged diarrhoea resulted in significant and sustained weight gain, but did not improve CD4 counts or survival. These results support integrated nutrition interventions for HIV-infected children.

Sphenoid sinus craniopharyngioma simulating mucocele.

We present a case of extracranial craniopharyngioma simulating a sphenoid sinus mucocele in a 12-year-old female who presented with progressive subacute left-sided visual disturbance. Although infrasellar craniopharyngioma is a rare entity, the presence of foci of calcification within the lesion is a useful finding for diagnosis.

Micronutrient supplementation in children and adults with HIV infection.

BACKGROUND: The scale and impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic has made the search for simple, affordable, safe, and effective public health interventions all the more urgent. Micronutrient supplements hold the promise of meeting these criteria, but their widespread use needs to be based on sound scientific evidence of effectiveness and safety. OBJECTIVES: To assess whether micronutrient supplements are effective in reducing morbidity and mortality in adults and children with HIV infection. SEARCH STRATEGY: The Cochrane Library (CENTRAL), EMBASE, MEDLINE, AIDSearch, CINAHL, and conference proceedings were searched, and pharmaceutical manufacturers and researchers in the field were contacted to locate any ongoing or unpublished trials. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials comparing the effects of micronutrient supplements (vitamins, trace elements, and combinations of these) with placebo or no treatment on mortality and morbidity in HIV-infected individuals. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two reviewers independently appraised trial quality and extracted data. Study authors were contacted for additional data where necessary. A meta-analysis was not deemed appropriate due to significant heterogeneity between trials. MAIN RESULTS: Fifteen trials were included. Six trials comparing vitamin A/beta-carotene with placebo in adults failed to show any effects on mortality, morbidity, CD4 and CD8 counts, or on viral load. Four trials of other micronutrients in adults did not affect overall mortality, although there was a reduction in mortality in a low CD4 subgroup. In a large Tanzanian trial in pregnant and lactating women, daily multivitamin supplementation was associated with a number of benefits to both mothers and children: a reduction in maternal mortality from AIDS-related causes; a reduced risk of progression to stage four disease; fewer adverse pregnancy outcomes; less diarrhoeal morbidity; and a reduction in early-child mortality among immunologically- and nutritionally-compromised women. Vitamin A alone reduced all-cause mortality and improved growth in a small sub-group of HIV-infected children in one hospital-based trial, and reduced diarrhoea-associated morbidity in a small HIV-infected sub-group of infants in another trial. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is no conclusive evidence at present to show that micronutrient supplementation effectively reduces morbidity and mortality among HIV-infected adults. It is reasonable to support the current WHO recommendations to promote and support adequate dietary intake of micronutrients at RDA levels wherever possible. There is evidence of benefit of vitamin A supplementation in children. The long-term clinical benefits, adverse effects, and optimal formulation of micronutrient supplements require further investigation.

Are WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF-recommended replacement milks for infants of HIV-infected mothers appropriate in the South African context?

OBJECTIVE: Little is known about the nutritional adequacy and feasibility of breastmilk replacement options recommended by WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF. The study aim was to explore suitability of the 2001 feeding recommendations for infants of HIV-infected mothers for a rural region in KwaZulu Natal, South Africa specifically with respect to adequacy of micronutrients and essential fatty acids, cost, and preparation times of replacement milks. METHODS: Nutritional adequacy, cost, and preparation time of home-prepared replacement milks containing powdered full cream milk (PM) and fresh full cream milk (FM) and different micronutrient supplements (2 g UNICEF micronutrient sachet, government supplement routinely available in district public health clinics, and best available liquid paediatric supplement found in local pharmacies) were compared. Costs of locally available ingredients for replacement milk were used to calculate monthly costs for infants aged one, three, and six months. Total monthly costs of ingredients of commercial and home-prepared replacement milks were compared with each other and the average monthly income of domestic or shop workers. Time needed to prepare one feed of replacement milk was simulated. FINDINGS: When mixed with water, sugar, and each micronutrient supplement, PM and FM provided <50% of estimated required amounts for vitamins E and C, folic acid, iodine, and selenium and <75% for zinc and pantothenic acid. PM and FM made with UNICEF micronutrient sachets provided 30% adequate intake for niacin. FM prepared with any micronutrient supplement provided no more than 32% vitamin D. All PMs provided more than adequate amounts of vitamin D. Compared with the commercial formula, PM and FM provided 8-60% of vitamins A, E, and C, folic acid, manganese, zinc, and iodine. Preparations of PM and FM provided 11% minimum recommended linoleic acid and 67% minimum recommended alpha-linolenic acid per 450 ml mixture. It took 21-25 minutes to optimally prepare 120 ml of replacement feed from PM or commercial infant formula and 30-35 minutes for the fresh milk preparation. PM or FM cost approximately 20% of monthly income averaged over the first six months of life; commercial formula cost approximately 32%. CONCLUSION: No home-prepared replacement milks in South Africa meet all estimated micronutrient and essential fatty acid requirements of infants aged <6 months. Commercial infant formula is the only replacement milk that meets all nutritional needs. Revisions of WHO/UNAIDS/UNICEF HIV and infant feeding course replacement milk options are needed. If replacement milks are to provide total nutrition, preparations should include vegetable oils, such as soybean oil, as a source of linoleic and alpha-linolenic acids, and additional vitamins and minerals.

Maternal recall of exclusive breast feeding duration.

BACKGROUND: Both the pattern and duration of breast feeding are important determinants of health outcomes. In vertical HIV transmission research, reliable documentation of early breast feeding practices is important in order to correctly attribute postnatal transmission to feeding pattern. AIMS: To validate methods of collecting data on the duration of exclusive breast feeding (EBF) in an area of South Africa with a high HIV prevalence rate. METHODS: A total of 130 mothers were interviewed weekly, postnatally. At every interview a 48 hour and a seven day recall breast feeding history were taken. A subset of 70 mothers also received two intermediate visits per week during which additional 48 hour, non-overlapping, recall interviews were conducted. Ninety three infants were revisited at 6-9 months of age when mothers' recall of EBF duration from birth was documented. The different methods of recalling EBF status were compared against an a priori "best comparison" in each case. RESULTS: Reported breast feeding practices over the previous 48 hours did not reflect EBF practices since birth (specificity 65-89%; positive predictive value 31-48%). Six month EBF duration recall was equally poor (sensitivity at 2 weeks 79%; specificity 40%). Seven day recall accurately reflected EBF practices compared with thrice weekly recall over the same time period (sensitivity 96%, specificity 94%). CONCLUSIONS: 48 hour EBF status does not accurately reflect feeding practices since birth. Long term recall data on EBF are even more inaccurate. We recommend that data on duration of EBF be collected prospectively at intervals of no longer than one week.